概览
和编程语言一样,为了理解英语这门自然语言,也需要先理解这个系统的基本组成元素。在这个基础上,才能进一步理解这些元素可以如何被组合,如何被抽象。而单句作为英语中一切句子的起点。所以理解单句的组成和各种变化是至关重要的。所有的细节在《旋元佑文法》中已经有了很好的阐述,而这篇文章则是对这些内容做一总结。
因为这本书并不力求学术上的严谨,所以采取了许多近似处理来让语法规则变的更加简单。这可以极大的降低语法理论的复杂度,让其变得易于理解。
另一方面,尽管有不同的理论来阐述英文语法,但这并不意味着像英语这种自然语言是被严格设计出来的。所有的语法实际上都是为了表达。这个观念对于理解语法理论是很重要的。
基本句型
英语的五大基本句型是理解一切句子的起点。句型解释了语言的基本元素该如何摆放。由此就可以进一步的理解各种特殊元素,例如动状词等。
一个完整的句子,由主部和述部组成。主部以主词为核心,告诉读者句子的主角是谁。述部担任叙述,以限定动词为核心,阐述主角做了什么事或是什么样。
我们约定如下记号:
符号 | 解释 |
---|---|
S | Subject 主词 |
V | Verb 动词 |
O | Object 受词 |
C | Complement 补语 |
由此我们可以提出五大基本句型:
- S + V
- S + V + O
- S + V + O + O
- S + V + C
- S + V + O + C
句型中的元素
主词。主词通常为广义的名词,也就是普通名词,名词片语,名词性子句,动状词。
受词。受词的成分与主词一致。从语法角度讲,这两个部分是可以对换的,尽管意思不一定通顺。
补语。补语在限定动词没有叙述能力时(例如 be 动词)进行叙述,或对受词补充说明。后一种情况时,句子实际上有两个述部,分别是以主词和受词为核心形成的。补语可以由名词、形容词和副词充当。副词一般是时间副词、地方副词和介副词。
可以总结如下:
位置 | 语法成分 |
---|---|
S 主词 | 名词,名词片语(限定词 + 形容词 + 名词),名词性子句,分词,动名词和不定词片语 |
V 动词 | 动词,动词片语(助动词 + 动词) |
O 受词 | 与主词相同 |
C 补语 | 广义名词,形容词与副词 |
语法元素
粗略地说,英语的主要语法元素分为名词,动词,形容词和副词。借助这些元素,我们就能写出简单的单句。
但自然语言并不是被设计出来的,所以使用者并不会严格的按照最基础的规则使用某一类词。这意味着通过词类变化,一些单词可以充当不同的角色。例如动词可以转变为分词,作为形容词使用。这种转变通常是为了表达一些和原形动词含义密切相关的事物。
名词
指代实体或抽象事物名称的词。在句子中通常以名词片语的形式出现,由限定词 + 形容词 + 名词组成。
关于名词的第一个话题是可数/不可数的区分。这来源于人类对于数学的初步认识。我们可以按照直觉上的可数与不可数来区分名词,下表是一个可供参考的严谨的区分:
可数名词 | 不可数名词 |
---|---|
具有固定形状的固体 | 物质名词 |
度量衡单位 | 抽象名词 |
动名词 | |
专有名词 |
第二个话题是名词片语。在句子中,名词通常以片语的形式出现,这是为了让表达更为精确。
名词片语由限定词 + 形容词 + 名词组成。其中限定词分为前、中和后位限定词。我们可以使用下图来表述这个结构。
关于冠词。分为定冠词 the,是 this/that/these/those 的弱化。不定冠词 a/an,是古英文 one 的弱化。以及零冠词,可理解为不加限制、无限的意思。
动词
句子中的动词分为限定动词与非限定动词。限定动词是句子中的唯一谓语。非限定动词又被称为动状词,有分词、动名词和不定词片语。状动词一般作为名词或形容词来使用。我们会在稍后进一步解释。
作为谓语动词的动词具有及物/不及物,完全/不完全这两类属性。这也导致了五种基本句型。 可参考以下表格:
属性 | 解释 | 🌰 |
---|---|---|
及物 | 需要有受词接受动作 | The dog bit the mailman |
不及物 | 动作独立完成 | The dog barked at the mailman |
完全 | 独立表达意思,不需要补语 | The dog bit the mailman |
不完全 | 被解释为“是”的动词,不具备叙述能力 | The dog was a bulldog |
注意到这两类概念可能重合。因为是否为及物动词取决于是否有受词接受动作,而是否为完全动词则取决于动词是否独立表达含义。换句话说,不及物动词通常都为完全动词。但 be 动词也被划分为不及物动词,其不具有独立表达的能力,所以提出了不完全动词来描述这种不及物动词的表达能力。关于这四种属性的区分只能积累。
另外的,我们还可以使用助动词与动词构成动词片语来表达一些含义。例如文法助动词 don’t/doesn’t 等,表达否定的含义。以及语气助动词如 must/will/shall 等表达不确定的语气。
注意到以前的理论将 will 等表述为未来式的专用助动词。但在旋元佑的理论中,不存在未来式。我们会在未来讨论语气及时态是详细讨论这个部分。
形容词
修饰名词的专用词。
名词片语中的形容词被称为 attributive adjectives,用来界定特质。位于限定词和名词之间。但也有一类放在名词后的形容词,主要是一些 a- 开头的形容词。清单如下:
单词 | 含义 |
---|---|
alive | 活着 |
alike | 相似 |
afloat | 漂浮着 |
adrift | 在漂流 |
alone | 单独 |
aboard | 在飞机上、船上 |
abroad | 在国外 |
afraid | 害怕 |
asleep | 睡着 |
awake | 醒着 |
ahead | 在前方 |
aware | 明白 |
aloof | 遥远 |
alert | 有警觉 |
同时形容词也可以放在补语位置,用于叙述,被称为 predicative adjectives。同时也可搭配其他语法元素进行叙述。下面是一些例子:
- The patient fell asleep.
- The kid looked afraid.
- The coffee kept him awake.
- I am eager to begin the project. 搭配不定片语
- These people are used to working overtime. 搭配介系词片语
- The man was sure that he made the right choice. 搭配名词子句
副词
用来修饰动词、形容词和副词。因为可修饰的元素众多,所以位置不固定。但原则上是离修饰对象要接近。这是为了防止出现歧义。同时副词不充当句子中心,可以独自充当状语,即对其他词语进行修饰或限制。
下面是一些不同种类副词的例子:
种类 | 例句 |
---|---|
方法状态副词 | 1. He reluctantly stayed single. 2. The student politely asked the speaker a question. |
频率副词 | 1. I usually get up very early. 2. I have never seen this woman before. |
范围副词 | 1. John saw the boss only yesterday. 2. John saw only the boss yesterday. |
加强语气的副词 | 1. You are absolutely a genius! 2. Your hair badly needs cutting. |
程度副词 | 1. The test is extremely difficult. 2. The plan almost failed. |
连接副词 | 1. However, projections for the next fiscal year are not vary optimistic. 2. Sales have increased 20%; besides, production coast has come down. |
分离副词 | 1. Theoreticall, your proposal might work. 2. If we are speaking theoretically, your proposal might work. |
介副词 | 1. Time is up. 2. Don’t look down. |
其中,分离副词指的是那类修饰整个句子的副词,例如句 1。但我们也可以将其理解为子句的方法状态副词,例如句 2。
动状词
在英语中,动状词指分词、动名词与不定词片语。这些词具有动词的特性,即可以拥有受词或被副词修饰,但在句子中扮演名词或形容词的角色。这种语法元素主要是因为表达的需求而出现的。
分词
分词分为现在分词 Ving 与过去分词 Ven。一般作为形容词出现。其中现在分词 Ving 与普通形容词的区别是 -ing 词尾带有主动语态、进行状态的暗示。过去分词 Ven 则有被动语态、完成状态的暗示。除了这两种基本结构,还有一种 have + Ven 完成式的动词片语。
对于结构简单的分词,我们一般将其视为动词的词类变化来看待。此时我们一般将 be 动词视为句子的唯一限定动词,而语态、状态由分词表达。例如这两个句子:
- The book is selling well.
- The book is well written.
严格来说,这种理解并不正确,考虑如下两个句子:
- The man was dressed by his valet this morning.
- He is dressed in blue now.
句 1 为过去式的被动语态,句子的核心是动词片语 was dressed。句 2 中 dressed 为过去分词作形容词,而 is 为限定动词,为一般式。可以看出分词作为动词和形容词是有一些差异的。但我们可以忽略这个以求语法理论的简单清晰。换句话说,上面两个句子都可以这样解释:be 动词为句子的限定动词,其状态表达主词的人称以及句子的时态。后面的分词为形容词,做主词补语。另外的,过去分词表示被动、完成的概念。
另外的,对于结构较为复杂的则视为减化子句来看待。
动名词
动名词的形式为 Ving,在句子中充当名词。动名词指代一个动作、一件事情。这个语法元素出现的原因是某些动作没有对应的名词,所以将动词改造为名词来使用。例如:
- Fishing requires a lot of patience.
- I love swimming.
形式上,动名词与现在分词一致。这很容易造成混淆。我们可以从这两种词的特性上理解。现在分词充当形容词使用,同时其 -ing 词尾暗示主动、进行。动名词作为名词,且不具备这种暗示。考虑如下两个句子:
- Rising costs have finally forced the company to fold.
- The raising of prices is going to scare off some customers.
句 1 中,表达正在上涨的支出,是现在分词。而句 2 中指代上涨这件事情,同时介系词 of 说明了这个是价格的上涨,也就是说,此处的 raising 为动名词。
如果从双方可以占据的位置考虑,我们知道作为形容词的现在分词可以放入名词片语和补语中。而作为名词的动名词也同样可以放在这两处位置。
首先,在名词片语中,检验一个词是否为现在分词,可以将其放在补语中。
- Those swimming swans came from Siberia.
- Those swans were swimming.
检验是否为动名词则可以将其放在介系词后面。
- That swimming pool is always crowded.
- A pool for swimming.
其次,在补语位置。处于补语位置的名词和主词在语法上等效。换句话说,我们可以将他们对换。
- The most important industry in Macao is gambling.
- Gambling is the most important industry.
- Many customers were gambling in the casino at the time.
不定词片语
不定词片语可视为语气助动词减化后的结果,同样具有不确定的语气。我们将会在稍后详细讨论语气助动词,但它们是一类助动词,与动词组成动词片语,表达条件语气,具有不确定性。而所有的语气助动词都可以转变为不定词:
| 语气助动词 | 不定词片语 | | :---------: | :-----------------------: | ------------- | | must | have to | | should | ought to | | will/should | be going to/be willing to | | can/could | be able to | | may/might | be likely to | be allowed to |
不定词片语在句子中可以充当名词片语、形容词片语和副词片语。我们可以像使用这些基本语法结构一样使用不定词片语:
作为名词片语:
- To be accurate is very important.
- should be accurate.
- The manager decided to carry out the plan.
- would carry out the plan.
- The best strategy is to stay put.
- To stay put is the best strategy.
作为形容词片语:
- To night I have some important work to do.
- 修饰 work,后置形容词
- You are to report to the General immediately.
- Jane wanted her boyfriend to leave her alone.
- 受词 boyfriend 的补语
作为副词片语:
- The agent called the movie start to tell her about the new movie.
- Your question is easy to answer.
- The child is old enough to look after herself now.
如果不定词所在的句子需要表示相对过去的时间,那么就需要用到完成式 to have Ven。因为不定词片语并不能表达时间。
- I am fortunate to have been born into a good family.
- The dog seemed to have been hit by a car.
另外的,使役动词和感官动词后的受词补语如果需要使用不定词片语,则需要省略 to。因为这两种动词在句意上都表达了实际上发生的事情,所以我们不需要弱化的语气助动词 to。
- I begged him to help me, but he wouldn’t.
- I’ll make him pay for this.
- I saw the car run over a dog.
但注意到使役动词和感官动词并不意味着永远是动词原形,因为后面的元素也有可能是分词。
- He had the garden party going.
- I felt my wallet touched.
- I felt cold rain streaming down my back.
动名词与不定词片语的使用
在该使用动名词还是不定词的问题上,除了积累单词外,一个重要的理解是注意到不定词作为语气助动词片语的减化,同时还有不确定的意思。而动名词则是当一件事情看待。
一些动名词与不定词片语皆可的场景:
- The man began playing / to play bridge.
- I like traveling / to travel to different places.
只能用不定词:
- I would like to take the afternoon off.
注意到此句表的是想要。这意味着事情并没有确定下来,所以使用了不定词片语表达这种不确定性。
只能用动名词:
动名词接近名词,也就是说可以组成自己的名词片语。
- He gave up without trying.
- I enjoy eating ice cream.
- He practiced playing the violin every afternoon.
- I dislike having to carry a lot of books with me.
- You should avoid making the same mistake twice.
对于后面 4 句,我们翻译一下就可以发现,重点都在表达动作本身,没有表达不确定语气的场景。
时态
不同于传统文法中动词时态的 24 种变化,旋元佑应用了一个统一的原则来分析各个时态,即视 be 为限定动词,后面的分词片语为形容词补语。由此,可以将时态分为简单式和完成式两类。
简单式
简单式状态用于交代动作发生的时间。除非上下文中提到了,否则需要添加明确的时间信息。
过去式
讨论发生于过去的事件。
-
The U.S. declared independence in 1776. 交代发生于过去的事件,动词 declare 变为过去状态。
-
Gunpowder was invented by the Chinese.
-
I was playing a video game when the power suddenly went out. 此处视 be 为动词,其过去状态表达了事件发生在过去。后面的则是分词,过去分词表示被动、完成,而现在分词表示主动、进行。
-
The house was being renovated when it collapsed on the workers. 过去式的被动,则需要使用 being Ven。同样的,我们也可以将 was 理解为限定动词,而 being renovated 则为过去分词片语。
-
I cut my finger while I was cutting the bread. 发生于过去的事件,同时切面包是一件持续的事件。所以使用现在分词。
现在式
讨论的事件以现在为中心,范围可大可小。
- I have a headache.
- The man pitches for the Yankees.
同样的,我们将 be 解释为限定动词,后面的分词补语依照形式表达主动或被动。
- Our summer house is located on the lake.
- Please be quiet, because everybody is sleeping now.
另外的,真理、恒定不变的事实以及静态动词也一般使用现在式。静态动词指比如 have/own/belong/like/love/hate 等,这些动词没有进行式。
- I am busy; I have a lot of work to do.
- This camera belongs to me.
- George resembles his father a lot.
未来式
新的语法观念认为不存在未来式,而应该解释为没有发生的、不确定的事件。在表达这类事件时,我们需要使用语气助动词表达不确定语气。我们会在稍后的语气部分详细讨论。
- The weatherman says it will rain tomorrow.
- Even so, it might turn out sunny tomorrow.
- It was sunny outside when we came in, but now it may be raining; the weather is so changeable.
will 与 be going to 很多时候解释为将要做某事。但 will 实际上是语气助动词,表示未发生的、不确定事件。而 be going to 则是 be 动词和现在分词组成的分词片语,表示规划或计划中一定会做的事情。
更进一步的说,一些所谓的来去动词:come/go/leave/arrive/begin/end/start/finish 等有一条语法规则是使用现在式、现在进行式代替未来式。但其实原因是一这些动词为核心的句子通常讨论已经排定的事情。
- The train is leaving in 10 minutes.
- The final game is starting in five minutes.
- The train arrives at 2:30.
- The plane leaves at 10 p.m.
如果是过去时间的未来,则使用 will 的过去式 would。
- It was June 1941; Japan would soon raid Pearl Harbor.
- The weatherman said it would rain, but it didn’t.
有一条语法说:在表示时间、条件的副词子句中,使用现在式代替未来式。这条规则的原因是在副词子句中,谈论的实际上是后续子句的前提。我们提到现代语法认为不存在未来式,而是不确定事件。所以在前提中使用不确定的语气是不符合逻辑的。
注意到我们讨论的是副词子句。而 when/if 也可以引导名词子句。
- I know when he left the room. 名词子句
- He forget his briefcase when he left the room 时间副词子句
- I don’t know if he has the money. 名词子句
- If he has the money, he can help us. 副词子句
关于在副词子句中使用现在式的例子:
- When he get here, the police will be waiting.
- If he gets to the hospital in time, he’ll be able to see his father for the last time.
完成式
完成式描述截止于某时刻的范围内发生的事件,且该事件已经完成。
过去时间
发生于过去,所以进行动词变化,即 had Ven。若要借助分词表达被动或进行的含义时,需要添加 be 动词来组成分词片语。注意到分词片语不具有表达时间的能力。
- Everybody had left before she got to the station.
- Some 60, 000 soldiers had been killed when the President finally decided to pull out of the war.
- The students had been preparing for the college entrance exam for three years when the Education Ministry suddenly announced a change of regulations.
现在时间
未交代或暗示截至时间的,则使用现在完成式:have Ven
- I have seen that movie.
- You can’t enter now because the concert has already begun.
- I have lived here for 20 years.
- I have been living here for 20 years.
未来时间
与简单式一样,不存在未来式,只有借助语气助动词表达的不确定语气。
- By August I will have worked at the company for 30 years.
- By August I will have been working at the company for 30 years.
- In two more minutes, she will have talking on the phone for three hours!
语气
语气是对真、假的表达,语法上借助动词的变化实现。分为直说语气、条件语气、假设语气和命令语气。
语气助动词
语气助动词与原形动词构成动词片语,表达不确定的语气。部分语气助动词存在时态变化。
助动词 | 解释 | 例句 |
---|---|---|
must | 义务,非…不可 没有时态变化 | 1. We must all keep together. 2. He said we must all keep together. |
will / would | 愿意,决心,承诺 | 1. I will have my own way. 2. He said he would have his own way. 3. Would you like a cup of coffee? (礼貌) |
shall / should | 责任,义务,非这么做不行 | 1. Shall we go now? (询问对方意愿) 2. We should always be on time. 3. He said we should leave early, and we did. |
can / could | 有能力,有权力 | 1. I can drink a dozen beers in an hour. 2. Last night there was something wrong with my stomach, and I couldn’t even finish one beer. 3. Could you please help me with my homework? (礼貌) |
may / might | 准许,许可 | 1. You may go now. 2. He said we might go. 3. Might I ask a big favor of you? (礼貌) |
语气助动词在表达猜测时,其轻重顺序如下:
must - will - would - should - can - could - may - might
另外的,还有一些次要的语气助动词:
助动词 | 解释 | 例句 |
---|---|---|
ought to | 应该 | 1. I think you ought to apologize to him. |
have to | 必须 | 1. You have to tell your father. |
used to | 从前,表示过去的习惯 | 1. He used to smoke a pipe. |
need | 需要 | 1. I don’t think you need go. 2. I don’t think you need to go. (此时 need 为动词) |
dare | 敢 | 1. I’m not sure I dare touch that snake. 2. I dare not tell my wife the truth. |
had better | 最好 | 1. I think we had better leave now. 2. Hadn’t we better be leaving now? 3. You had better not lie to me. |
would rather | 宁愿 | 1. I would rather go abroad than study at a local graduate school. 2. Would you rather stay here? 3. I would rather not talk about it. |
might as well | 不如,不妨 | 1. We might as well walk, with so much traffic on the road. 2. We might as well not drive at all. |
直说语气
陈述事实。此时动词按照正常的时态进行变化,不需要语气助动词。
- Many years ago Bill Gates quit college to start his own company.
- By now he has build that company into the larges of its kind.
- In the future he is going to devote most of his time to charity. will 会让语气不确定
同时直说语气也可表示虽无法确定,但当作事实的事件。
- His story may be true.
- I guess her story is true.
- If his story is true, I’m going to help him.
条件语气
表达真假尚不确定的事件,使用语气助动词 + 动词原形。
- Students should study every day.
- I have no idea where he should be right now.
假设语气(虚拟语气)
表达非事实的情况,也就是说反话。有三个常用句型:
- if …, (then)…
- wish …
- It is time that …
其次,在动词搭配方面:
- 使用过去表达非事实的语气。句子为现在式就用过去式,句子为过去则使用过去完成式。
- 若为 if … 句型,则主要子句中会有 would, should, could, might 四种过去拼法的语气助动词,表达“就应该,就会,就能够,就可以”有怎样的结果。具有表达非事实的假设语气。
现在时间
- If I were you, I would accept the offer.
- I wish I had the money.
- It’s time that you started living on your own.
过去时间
- If the landslide had occurred a few seconds later, the bus could have passed through safely.
- I wish I had gone abroad when I graduated.
未来时间
未来事件不确定,各种情况如下:
-
不确定:加语气助动词
- 语气助动词 + 动词原形,取代了未来式
- The weatherman says it will rain tomorrow, but I think it may not.
-
事先排定:事实,使用原型
- The train leaves at 3:30, five minutes from now.
- The train is leaving at 3:30, five minutes from now.
-
时间副词子句、条件副词子句中:当作事实,用现在时
- 本身就是假设了,所以不需要更进一步的假设
- When the game is over, I’ll treat you to dinner.
- If we win this game, we will qualify for the finals.
-
未来绝无可能发生:用 were to
- If I were to grow three inches this month, I could pass the physical.
-
希望渺茫,但不排除万一:用 should
- If I should win the lottery, I will buy up the company.
- If I should win the lottery, I would buy up the company.
注意到 were to + V 是 be going to 的一种变化。
命令语气
表达希望成真、要求成真的语气。使用动词原形,一般是上对下。
- Watch your step!
- Come in!
另外的,我们将以下两种句型称为间接命令句:
- It’s necessary / important / essential .. that ..
- suggest / insist / demand .. that ..
其实从意思上可以理解到子句是个命令或者要求。所以我们需要使用动词原形。
- It is necessary that the letter be sent out before noon.
- I insist that the letter be sent out before noon. 我坚持这封信一定要在中午之前寄出
- I insist that the letter was sent out before noon. 我讲真的,这封信在中午之前就寄出去了
祈使句
使用动词原形,表示祈求的语气,一般是下对上。
- God bless you!
- Long live the King!
其他语法 & 元素
至此,我们讨论完了大部分单句的基本语法。但句子不仅仅表达事件,还有阐述逻辑的能力。
比较句型
比较句法指以丛书连接词 as 或 than 引导的副词子句。注意到子句需要满足对称要求,且在不影响句意的情况下,需要省略重复部分。
- Unit 3 is longer than Unit 4.
- Unit 3 is less difficult than Unit 4.
- Unit 3 is not so important as Unit 4.
- Unit 3 is as boring as Unit 4.
- Unit 3 is as boring as is Unit 4.
比较级
在使用比较句型时,需要注意形容词的比较级变化。
| 音节 | 变化规则 | 例子 | | -------------------------- | ------------------------- | ------------------------------------------- | ------------------------ | ---------- | | 单音节 | 字尾变化。-er -est | tall / taller / tallest | | 三音节以上 | 前加程度副词 more 与 most | expensive / more expensive / most expensive | | 两音节,有标识词类的字尾 | 保留字尾,使用程度副词 | basic / more basic / most basic | | 两音节,没有标识词类的字尾 | 两种方式都可接受 | shallow / more shallow | shallower / most shallow | shallowest | | 不规则变化 | 嗯记 | good / better / best |
对等连接词
英语中的连接词分为从属连接词和对等连接词。从属连接词连接从属子句,我们将在未来讨论。对等连接词连接两个对等字句,和比较句型一样,我们也需要保证对称,且省略重复部分。
常用的对等连接词有 and/or/but/yet/otherwise。
- George and Mary were good friends.
- We always worked and played together.
- He speaks Cantonese but not Mandarin.
- Should I leave the key under the doormat or in the flowerpot?
需要注意在连接修饰语时,若修辞名词的不同方面,则不需要连接词。
- One day, the big bad wolf came to the cottage.
- I saw a black and white cat on the wall.
- He spoke very quickly.
- He spoke quickly but clearly.
另外的,还有一些常用词组:
- both A and B A 和 B 都 …
- either A or B 不是 A 就是 B …
- neither A nor B A 和 B 都不 …
- not only A but also B 不只 A,B 也 …