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旋元佑文法笔记——单句

10-15-2022

概览

和编程语言一样,为了理解英语这门自然语言,也需要先理解这个系统的基本组成元素。在这个基础上,才能进一步理解这些元素可以如何被组合,如何被抽象。而单句作为英语中一切句子的起点。所以理解单句的组成和各种变化是至关重要的。所有的细节在《旋元佑文法》中已经有了很好的阐述,而这篇文章则是对这些内容做一总结。

因为这本书并不力求学术上的严谨,所以采取了许多近似处理来让语法规则变的更加简单。这可以极大的降低语法理论的复杂度,让其变得易于理解。

另一方面,尽管有不同的理论来阐述英文语法,但这并不意味着像英语这种自然语言是被严格设计出来的。所有的语法实际上都是为了表达。这个观念对于理解语法理论是很重要的。

基本句型

英语的五大基本句型是理解一切句子的起点。句型解释了语言的基本元素该如何摆放。由此就可以进一步的理解各种特殊元素,例如动状词等。

一个完整的句子,由主部述部组成。主部以主词为核心,告诉读者句子的主角是谁。述部担任叙述,以限定动词为核心,阐述主角做了什么事或是什么样。

我们约定如下记号:

符号解释
SSubject 主词
VVerb 动词
OObject 受词
CComplement 补语

由此我们可以提出五大基本句型:

  1. S + V
  2. S + V + O
  3. S + V + O + O
  4. S + V + C
  5. S + V + O + C

句型中的元素

主词。主词通常为广义的名词,也就是普通名词,名词片语,名词性子句,动状词。

受词。受词的成分与主词一致。从语法角度讲,这两个部分是可以对换的,尽管意思不一定通顺。

补语。补语在限定动词没有叙述能力时(例如 be 动词)进行叙述,或对受词补充说明。后一种情况时,句子实际上有两个述部,分别是以主词和受词为核心形成的。补语可以由名词、形容词和副词充当。副词一般是时间副词、地方副词和介副词。

可以总结如下:

位置语法成分
S 主词名词,名词片语(限定词 + 形容词 + 名词),名词性子句,分词,动名词和不定词片语
V 动词动词,动词片语(助动词 + 动词)
O 受词与主词相同
C 补语广义名词,形容词与副词

语法元素

粗略地说,英语的主要语法元素分为名词,动词,形容词和副词。借助这些元素,我们就能写出简单的单句。

但自然语言并不是被设计出来的,所以使用者并不会严格的按照最基础的规则使用某一类词。这意味着通过词类变化,一些单词可以充当不同的角色。例如动词可以转变为分词,作为形容词使用。这种转变通常是为了表达一些和原形动词含义密切相关的事物。

名词

指代实体或抽象事物名称的词。在句子中通常以名词片语的形式出现,由限定词 + 形容词 + 名词组成。

关于名词的第一个话题是可数/不可数的区分。这来源于人类对于数学的初步认识。我们可以按照直觉上的可数与不可数来区分名词,下表是一个可供参考的严谨的区分:

可数名词不可数名词
具有固定形状的固体物质名词
度量衡单位抽象名词
动名词
专有名词

第二个话题是名词片语。在句子中,名词通常以片语的形式出现,这是为了让表达更为精确。

名词片语由限定词 + 形容词 + 名词组成。其中限定词分为前、中和后位限定词。我们可以使用下图来表述这个结构。

关于冠词。分为定冠词 the,是 this/that/these/those 的弱化。不定冠词 a/an,是古英文 one 的弱化。以及零冠词,可理解为不加限制、无限的意思。

动词

句子中的动词分为限定动词与非限定动词。限定动词是句子中的唯一谓语。非限定动词又被称为动状词,有分词、动名词和不定词片语。状动词一般作为名词或形容词来使用。我们会在稍后进一步解释。

作为谓语动词的动词具有及物/不及物完全/不完全这两类属性。这也导致了五种基本句型。 可参考以下表格:

属性解释🌰
及物需要有受词接受动作The dog bit the mailman
不及物动作独立完成The dog barked at the mailman
完全独立表达意思,不需要补语The dog bit the mailman
不完全被解释为“是”的动词,不具备叙述能力The dog was a bulldog

注意到这两类概念可能重合。因为是否为及物动词取决于是否有受词接受动作,而是否为完全动词则取决于动词是否独立表达含义。换句话说,不及物动词通常都为完全动词。但 be 动词也被划分为不及物动词,其不具有独立表达的能力,所以提出了不完全动词来描述这种不及物动词的表达能力。关于这四种属性的区分只能积累。

另外的,我们还可以使用助动词与动词构成动词片语来表达一些含义。例如文法助动词 don’t/doesn’t 等,表达否定的含义。以及语气助动词如 must/will/shall 等表达不确定的语气。

注意到以前的理论将 will 等表述为未来式的专用助动词。但在旋元佑的理论中,不存在未来式。我们会在未来讨论语气及时态是详细讨论这个部分。

形容词

修饰名词的专用词。

名词片语中的形容词被称为 attributive adjectives,用来界定特质。位于限定词和名词之间。但也有一类放在名词后的形容词,主要是一些 a- 开头的形容词。清单如下:

单词含义
alive活着
alike相似
afloat漂浮着
adrift在漂流
alone单独
aboard在飞机上、船上
abroad在国外
afraid害怕
asleep睡着
awake醒着
ahead在前方
aware明白
aloof遥远
alert有警觉

同时形容词也可以放在补语位置,用于叙述,被称为 predicative adjectives。同时也可搭配其他语法元素进行叙述。下面是一些例子:

  1. The patient fell asleep.
  2. The kid looked afraid.
  3. The coffee kept him awake.
  4. I am eager to begin the project. 搭配不定片语
  5. These people are used to working overtime. 搭配介系词片语
  6. The man was sure that he made the right choice. 搭配名词子句

副词

用来修饰动词、形容词和副词。因为可修饰的元素众多,所以位置不固定。但原则上是离修饰对象要接近。这是为了防止出现歧义。同时副词不充当句子中心,可以独自充当状语,即对其他词语进行修饰或限制。

下面是一些不同种类副词的例子:

种类例句
方法状态副词1. He reluctantly stayed single.
2. The student politely asked the speaker a question.
频率副词1. I usually get up very early.
2. I have never seen this woman before.
范围副词1. John saw the boss only yesterday.
2. John saw only the boss yesterday.
加强语气的副词1. You are absolutely a genius!
2. Your hair badly needs cutting.
程度副词1. The test is extremely difficult.
2. The plan almost failed.
连接副词1. However, projections for the next fiscal year are not vary optimistic.
2. Sales have increased 20%; besides, production coast has come down.
分离副词1. Theoreticall, your proposal might work.
2. If we are speaking theoretically, your proposal might work.
介副词1. Time is up.
2. Don’t look down.

其中,分离副词指的是那类修饰整个句子的副词,例如句 1。但我们也可以将其理解为子句的方法状态副词,例如句 2。

动状词

在英语中,动状词指分词、动名词与不定词片语。这些词具有动词的特性,即可以拥有受词或被副词修饰,但在句子中扮演名词或形容词的角色。这种语法元素主要是因为表达的需求而出现的。

分词

分词分为现在分词 Ving 与过去分词 Ven。一般作为形容词出现。其中现在分词 Ving 与普通形容词的区别是 -ing 词尾带有主动语态、进行状态的暗示。过去分词 Ven 则有被动语态、完成状态的暗示。除了这两种基本结构,还有一种 have + Ven 完成式的动词片语。

对于结构简单的分词,我们一般将其视为动词的词类变化来看待。此时我们一般将 be 动词视为句子的唯一限定动词,而语态、状态由分词表达。例如这两个句子:

  1. The book is selling well.
  2. The book is well written.

严格来说,这种理解并不正确,考虑如下两个句子:

  1. The man was dressed by his valet this morning.
  2. He is dressed in blue now.

句 1 为过去式的被动语态,句子的核心是动词片语 was dressed。句 2 中 dressed 为过去分词作形容词,而 is 为限定动词,为一般式。可以看出分词作为动词和形容词是有一些差异的。但我们可以忽略这个以求语法理论的简单清晰。换句话说,上面两个句子都可以这样解释:be 动词为句子的限定动词,其状态表达主词的人称以及句子的时态。后面的分词为形容词,做主词补语。另外的,过去分词表示被动、完成的概念。

另外的,对于结构较为复杂的则视为减化子句来看待。

动名词

动名词的形式为 Ving,在句子中充当名词。动名词指代一个动作、一件事情。这个语法元素出现的原因是某些动作没有对应的名词,所以将动词改造为名词来使用。例如:

  1. Fishing requires a lot of patience.
  2. I love swimming.

形式上,动名词与现在分词一致。这很容易造成混淆。我们可以从这两种词的特性上理解。现在分词充当形容词使用,同时其 -ing 词尾暗示主动、进行。动名词作为名词,且不具备这种暗示。考虑如下两个句子:

  1. Rising costs have finally forced the company to fold.
  2. The raising of prices is going to scare off some customers.

句 1 中,表达正在上涨的支出,是现在分词。而句 2 中指代上涨这件事情,同时介系词 of 说明了这个是价格的上涨,也就是说,此处的 raising 为动名词。

如果从双方可以占据的位置考虑,我们知道作为形容词的现在分词可以放入名词片语和补语中。而作为名词的动名词也同样可以放在这两处位置。

首先,在名词片语中,检验一个词是否为现在分词,可以将其放在补语中。

检验是否为动名词则可以将其放在介系词后面。

其次,在补语位置。处于补语位置的名词和主词在语法上等效。换句话说,我们可以将他们对换。

  1. The most important industry in Macao is gambling.
    • Gambling is the most important industry.
  2. Many customers were gambling in the casino at the time.

不定词片语

不定词片语可视为语气助动词减化后的结果,同样具有不确定的语气。我们将会在稍后详细讨论语气助动词,但它们是一类助动词,与动词组成动词片语,表达条件语气,具有不确定性。而所有的语气助动词都可以转变为不定词:

| 语气助动词 | 不定词片语 | | :---------: | :-----------------------: | ------------- | | must | have to | | should | ought to | | will/should | be going to/be willing to | | can/could | be able to | | may/might | be likely to | be allowed to |

不定词片语在句子中可以充当名词片语、形容词片语和副词片语。我们可以像使用这些基本语法结构一样使用不定词片语:

作为名词片语

  1. To be accurate is very important.
    • should be accurate.
  2. The manager decided to carry out the plan.
    • would carry out the plan.
  3. The best strategy is to stay put.
    • To stay put is the best strategy.

作为形容词片语

  1. To night I have some important work to do.
    • 修饰 work,后置形容词
  2. You are to report to the General immediately.
  3. Jane wanted her boyfriend to leave her alone.
    • 受词 boyfriend 的补语

作为副词片语

  1. The agent called the movie start to tell her about the new movie.
  2. Your question is easy to answer.
  3. The child is old enough to look after herself now.

如果不定词所在的句子需要表示相对过去的时间,那么就需要用到完成式 to have Ven。因为不定词片语并不能表达时间。

  1. I am fortunate to have been born into a good family.
  2. The dog seemed to have been hit by a car.

另外的,使役动词和感官动词后的受词补语如果需要使用不定词片语,则需要省略 to。因为这两种动词在句意上都表达了实际上发生的事情,所以我们不需要弱化的语气助动词 to。

  1. I begged him to help me, but he wouldn’t.
  2. I’ll make him pay for this.
  3. I saw the car run over a dog.

但注意到使役动词和感官动词并不意味着永远是动词原形,因为后面的元素也有可能是分词。

  1. He had the garden party going.
  2. I felt my wallet touched.
  3. I felt cold rain streaming down my back.

动名词与不定词片语的使用

在该使用动名词还是不定词的问题上,除了积累单词外,一个重要的理解是注意到不定词作为语气助动词片语的减化,同时还有不确定的意思。而动名词则是当一件事情看待。

一些动名词与不定词片语皆可的场景

  1. The man began playing / to play bridge.
  2. I like traveling / to travel to different places.

只能用不定词

注意到此句表的是想要。这意味着事情并没有确定下来,所以使用了不定词片语表达这种不确定性。

只能用动名词

动名词接近名词,也就是说可以组成自己的名词片语。

  1. He gave up without trying.
  2. I enjoy eating ice cream.
  3. He practiced playing the violin every afternoon.
  4. I dislike having to carry a lot of books with me.
  5. You should avoid making the same mistake twice.

对于后面 4 句,我们翻译一下就可以发现,重点都在表达动作本身,没有表达不确定语气的场景。

时态

不同于传统文法中动词时态的 24 种变化,旋元佑应用了一个统一的原则来分析各个时态,即视 be 为限定动词,后面的分词片语为形容词补语。由此,可以将时态分为简单式和完成式两类。

简单式

简单式状态用于交代动作发生的时间。除非上下文中提到了,否则需要添加明确的时间信息。

过去式

讨论发生于过去的事件。

  1. The U.S. declared independence in 1776. 交代发生于过去的事件,动词 declare 变为过去状态。

  2. Gunpowder was invented by the Chinese.

  3. I was playing a video game when the power suddenly went out. 此处视 be 为动词,其过去状态表达了事件发生在过去。后面的则是分词,过去分词表示被动、完成,而现在分词表示主动、进行。

  4. The house was being renovated when it collapsed on the workers. 过去式的被动,则需要使用 being Ven。同样的,我们也可以将 was 理解为限定动词,而 being renovated 则为过去分词片语。

  5. I cut my finger while I was cutting the bread. 发生于过去的事件,同时切面包是一件持续的事件。所以使用现在分词。

现在式

讨论的事件以现在为中心,范围可大可小。

  1. I have a headache.
  2. The man pitches for the Yankees.

同样的,我们将 be 解释为限定动词,后面的分词补语依照形式表达主动或被动。

  1. Our summer house is located on the lake.
  2. Please be quiet, because everybody is sleeping now.

另外的,真理、恒定不变的事实以及静态动词也一般使用现在式。静态动词指比如 have/own/belong/like/love/hate 等,这些动词没有进行式。

  1. I am busy; I have a lot of work to do.
  2. This camera belongs to me.
  3. George resembles his father a lot.

未来式

新的语法观念认为不存在未来式,而应该解释为没有发生的、不确定的事件。在表达这类事件时,我们需要使用语气助动词表达不确定语气。我们会在稍后的语气部分详细讨论。

  1. The weatherman says it will rain tomorrow.
  2. Even so, it might turn out sunny tomorrow.
  3. It was sunny outside when we came in, but now it may be raining; the weather is so changeable.

will 与 be going to 很多时候解释为将要做某事。但 will 实际上是语气助动词,表示未发生的、不确定事件。而 be going to 则是 be 动词和现在分词组成的分词片语,表示规划或计划中一定会做的事情。

更进一步的说,一些所谓的来去动词:come/go/leave/arrive/begin/end/start/finish 等有一条语法规则是使用现在式、现在进行式代替未来式。但其实原因是一这些动词为核心的句子通常讨论已经排定的事情。

  1. The train is leaving in 10 minutes.
  2. The final game is starting in five minutes.
  3. The train arrives at 2:30.
  4. The plane leaves at 10 p.m.

如果是过去时间的未来,则使用 will 的过去式 would。

  1. It was June 1941; Japan would soon raid Pearl Harbor.
  2. The weatherman said it would rain, but it didn’t.

有一条语法说:在表示时间、条件的副词子句中,使用现在式代替未来式。这条规则的原因是在副词子句中,谈论的实际上是后续子句的前提。我们提到现代语法认为不存在未来式,而是不确定事件。所以在前提中使用不确定的语气是不符合逻辑的。

注意到我们讨论的是副词子句。而 when/if 也可以引导名词子句。

  1. I know when he left the room. 名词子句
  2. He forget his briefcase when he left the room 时间副词子句
  3. I don’t know if he has the money. 名词子句
  4. If he has the money, he can help us. 副词子句

关于在副词子句中使用现在式的例子:

  1. When he get here, the police will be waiting.
  2. If he gets to the hospital in time, he’ll be able to see his father for the last time.

完成式

完成式描述截止于某时刻的范围内发生的事件,且该事件已经完成。

过去时间

发生于过去,所以进行动词变化,即 had Ven。若要借助分词表达被动或进行的含义时,需要添加 be 动词来组成分词片语。注意到分词片语不具有表达时间的能力。

  1. Everybody had left before she got to the station.
  2. Some 60, 000 soldiers had been killed when the President finally decided to pull out of the war.
  3. The students had been preparing for the college entrance exam for three years when the Education Ministry suddenly announced a change of regulations.

现在时间

未交代或暗示截至时间的,则使用现在完成式:have Ven

  1. I have seen that movie.
  2. You can’t enter now because the concert has already begun.
  3. I have lived here for 20 years.
  4. I have been living here for 20 years.

未来时间

与简单式一样,不存在未来式,只有借助语气助动词表达的不确定语气。

  1. By August I will have worked at the company for 30 years.
  2. By August I will have been working at the company for 30 years.
  3. In two more minutes, she will have talking on the phone for three hours!

语气

语气是对真、假的表达,语法上借助动词的变化实现。分为直说语气、条件语气、假设语气和命令语气。

语气助动词

语气助动词与原形动词构成动词片语,表达不确定的语气。部分语气助动词存在时态变化。

助动词解释例句
must义务,非…不可
没有时态变化
1. We must all keep together.
2. He said we must all keep together.
will / would愿意,决心,承诺1. I will have my own way.
2. He said he would have his own way.
3. Would you like a cup of coffee? (礼貌)
shall / should责任,义务,非这么做不行1. Shall we go now? (询问对方意愿)
2. We should always be on time.
3. He said we should leave early, and we did.
can / could有能力,有权力1. I can drink a dozen beers in an hour.
2. Last night there was something wrong with my stomach, and I couldn’t even finish one beer.
3. Could you please help me with my homework? (礼貌)
may / might准许,许可1. You may go now.
2. He said we might go.
3. Might I ask a big favor of you? (礼貌)

语气助动词在表达猜测时,其轻重顺序如下:

must - will - would - should - can - could - may - might

另外的,还有一些次要的语气助动词:

助动词解释例句
ought to应该1. I think you ought to apologize to him.
have to必须1. You have to tell your father.
used to从前,表示过去的习惯1. He used to smoke a pipe.
need需要1. I don’t think you need go.
2. I don’t think you need to go. (此时 need 为动词)
dare1. I’m not sure I dare touch that snake.
2. I dare not tell my wife the truth.
had better最好1. I think we had better leave now.
2. Hadn’t we better be leaving now?
3. You had better not lie to me.
would rather宁愿1. I would rather go abroad than study at a local graduate school.
2. Would you rather stay here?
3. I would rather not talk about it.
might as well不如,不妨1. We might as well walk, with so much traffic on the road.
2. We might as well not drive at all.

直说语气

陈述事实。此时动词按照正常的时态进行变化,不需要语气助动词。

  1. Many years ago Bill Gates quit college to start his own company.
  2. By now he has build that company into the larges of its kind.
  3. In the future he is going to devote most of his time to charity. will 会让语气不确定

同时直说语气也可表示虽无法确定,但当作事实的事件。

  1. His story may be true.
  2. I guess her story is true.
  3. If his story is true, I’m going to help him.

条件语气

表达真假尚不确定的事件,使用语气助动词 + 动词原形。

  1. Students should study every day.
  2. I have no idea where he should be right now.

假设语气(虚拟语气)

表达非事实的情况,也就是说反话。有三个常用句型:

  1. if …, (then)…
  2. wish …
  3. It is time that …

其次,在动词搭配方面:

  1. 使用过去表达非事实的语气。句子为现在式就用过去式,句子为过去则使用过去完成式。
  2. 若为 if … 句型,则主要子句中会有 would, should, could, might 四种过去拼法的语气助动词,表达“就应该,就会,就能够,就可以”有怎样的结果。具有表达非事实的假设语气。

现在时间

  1. If I were you, I would accept the offer.
  2. I wish I had the money.
  3. It’s time that you started living on your own.

过去时间

  1. If the landslide had occurred a few seconds later, the bus could have passed through safely.
  2. I wish I had gone abroad when I graduated.

未来时间

未来事件不确定,各种情况如下:

  1. 不确定:加语气助动词

    • 语气助动词 + 动词原形,取代了未来式
    • The weatherman says it will rain tomorrow, but I think it may not.
  2. 事先排定:事实,使用原型

    • The train leaves at 3:30, five minutes from now.
    • The train is leaving at 3:30, five minutes from now.
  3. 时间副词子句、条件副词子句中:当作事实,用现在时

    • 本身就是假设了,所以不需要更进一步的假设
    • When the game is over, I’ll treat you to dinner.
    • If we win this game, we will qualify for the finals.
  4. 未来绝无可能发生:用 were to

    • If I were to grow three inches this month, I could pass the physical.
  5. 希望渺茫,但不排除万一:用 should

    • If I should win the lottery, I will buy up the company.
    • If I should win the lottery, I would buy up the company.

注意到 were to + V 是 be going to 的一种变化。

命令语气

表达希望成真、要求成真的语气。使用动词原形,一般是上对下。

  1. Watch your step!
  2. Come in!

另外的,我们将以下两种句型称为间接命令句:

  1. It’s necessary / important / essential .. that ..
  2. suggest / insist / demand .. that ..

其实从意思上可以理解到子句是个命令或者要求。所以我们需要使用动词原形。

  1. It is necessary that the letter be sent out before noon.
  2. I insist that the letter be sent out before noon. 我坚持这封信一定要在中午之前寄出
  3. I insist that the letter was sent out before noon. 我讲真的,这封信在中午之前就寄出去了

祈使句

使用动词原形,表示祈求的语气,一般是下对上。

  1. God bless you!
  2. Long live the King!

其他语法 & 元素

至此,我们讨论完了大部分单句的基本语法。但句子不仅仅表达事件,还有阐述逻辑的能力。

比较句型

比较句法指以丛书连接词 as 或 than 引导的副词子句。注意到子句需要满足对称要求,且在不影响句意的情况下,需要省略重复部分。

  1. Unit 3 is longer than Unit 4.
  2. Unit 3 is less difficult than Unit 4.
  3. Unit 3 is not so important as Unit 4.
  4. Unit 3 is as boring as Unit 4.
  5. Unit 3 is as boring as is Unit 4.

比较级

在使用比较句型时,需要注意形容词的比较级变化。

| 音节 | 变化规则 | 例子 | | -------------------------- | ------------------------- | ------------------------------------------- | ------------------------ | ---------- | | 单音节 | 字尾变化。-er -est | tall / taller / tallest | | 三音节以上 | 前加程度副词 more 与 most | expensive / more expensive / most expensive | | 两音节,有标识词类的字尾 | 保留字尾,使用程度副词 | basic / more basic / most basic | | 两音节,没有标识词类的字尾 | 两种方式都可接受 | shallow / more shallow | shallower / most shallow | shallowest | | 不规则变化 | 嗯记 | good / better / best |

对等连接词

英语中的连接词分为从属连接词和对等连接词。从属连接词连接从属子句,我们将在未来讨论。对等连接词连接两个对等字句,和比较句型一样,我们也需要保证对称,且省略重复部分。

常用的对等连接词有 and/or/but/yet/otherwise。

  1. George and Mary were good friends.
  2. We always worked and played together.
  3. He speaks Cantonese but not Mandarin.
  4. Should I leave the key under the doormat or in the flowerpot?

需要注意在连接修饰语时,若修辞名词的不同方面,则不需要连接词。

  1. One day, the big bad wolf came to the cottage.
  2. I saw a black and white cat on the wall.
  3. He spoke very quickly.
  4. He spoke quickly but clearly.

另外的,还有一些常用词组:

  1. both A and B A 和 B 都 …
  2. either A or B 不是 A 就是 B …
  3. neither A nor B A 和 B 都不 …
  4. not only A but also B 不只 A,B 也 …
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